Part 1 Demand Curve (需求線)
Demand Curve: A negative relationship between the price and the quantity for the product, ceteris paribus(其他因素不變).
- 建立Market的insight, 先用歷史上怎麼想的會比直接投入好一點
- 社會學家注重研究( 社會)關係, 經濟學從參與者怎麼想研究
- 現代化因為交易而生產力上升, 專業分工
- 專業分工後去市場交易換取所需東西
- 每個人都是Seller也是Buyer - 超邊際經濟學(Inframarginal Analysis), 楊小凱
- 超邊際經濟學都是圖論跟拓樸數學, 我們這堂課不會從這開始
- 楊小凱曾經最有可能拿經濟學諾貝爾獎(Monash U., Aus),但文革內傷50幾歲掛了
- 傳統經濟學只從單向看, Buyer or Seller
- 今天本堂課從消費者在市場面怎麼想(Buyer)
- 而核心變數就是 (1) 價格 (2) 數量
- 根據歷史觀察, 兩者是一個反向關係, 稱需求線, 並且假設其他因素不變(ceteris paribus).
設飯糰需求為 Qrd = D( Pr , other factors);
1. Pr的下方可標(-), 代表反向變動關係
2. Other Factors包含:
(1) Characteristic 特徵 (蛋, 肉, 油條 ...) (2) 三明治價格 (3) 粥的價格 (4) 所得 (5) 天氣
Demand Curve: Law of Demand(需求法則), people do less of what they want to do as the cost of doing it rises.
- 由於有成本, 需求法則, 所以造成需求線的曲線
- 反例: Giffen Goods - 當馬鈴薯價格上升消費反而增加, 因為沒錢買肉只好全買馬鈴薯
- 反例: Veblen Goods - 奢侈品可能因為虛榮去買, 越貴越買因為價值(Show Off)來自於價格
A. Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility(邊際效用遞減法則): the tendency for the additional utility gained from consuming an additional unit of a good to diminish as consumption increases beyond some point.
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Utility represents the satisfaction people derive from their consumption activities.
人的爽度可以被數據化, 由Bentham 在19世紀提出, 發展出神經元經濟學
Jeremy Bentham (utilometer)
Neuro-economics (神經元經濟學)
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Total Utility (TU): the total utility gained from the consumption activities.
去衡量買東西所能帶來的爽度總和
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Marginal Utility (MU): the additional utility gained from consuming an additionalunit of a good.(1)若是U(qr)是消費飯糰函數來算爽度, 那邊際效用就是其一階導函數U'(qr).
(2)一階導函數就是求斜率, 就是每增加飯糰消費所帶來的爽度
(3)例如:
U(qr.=3) = 170 [吃三個飯糰的總爽度]
U'(qr.=1) = 150 [吃第一顆時的爽度]
U'(qr.=2) = 30 [吃第二顆時的爽度]
U'(qr.=3) = -10 [吃第三顆時的爽度]
進一步設定 2 Utility = 1 NT
(4)所以消費者行為是, 付最少錢爽度最大
(5)例如1: Pr = 10, 買1個爽度是75-10=65, 買2個是(75+15)-10x2=70
(6)例如2: Pr = 50, 買1個爽度是75-50=25, 買2個是(75+15)-50x2=-10
B. Substitution effect and Income effect.
需求法則還可以從替代效果與所得效果來觀察到, 實證上是兩者相加.- Substitution effect: as the relative price changes consumers will replace moreexpensive item with less costly alternatives.
(1) 替代效果越強, 選擇越多
(2) 替代選擇越多, 效果越強
(3) 如果東西價格相對變動了, 會對需求有影響
(4) 例如:Pr/Ps, 當Pr下降, Qr上升(需求線向外移), Ps上升, 則Qr上升(需求線向外移)
- Income effect: the change in consumption resulting from a change in real income.
(1) Real Income = I / P = Income / Price
(2) I / Pr, 當 Pr上升時, Qn 下降, 就是所得效果所致
(3) 隨著價格變動, 造成real income變動, 因此影響到消費
From individual demand curves to a market demand curve: the horizontal summation of the individual demand curves.
A. The case where a buyer may buy one more unitsB. The case where a buyer always buy only one unit, such as cars
Part 2 Consumer Surplus(消費者剩餘)
Consumer surplus: the difference between the consumers' total benefit from some consumption and actual expenditure.
2. 不管是哪個Rank, 都會以市價成交(ex. 58萬).
3. 原本打算75萬買車的消費者就會多出(75-58=17萬)的爽度
4. 市場上這些多出來的爽度加總, 稱為消費者剩餘
Part 3 Other Factors in Demand
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Advertising: informative vs. persuasive
(1) Informative Effect (宣傳效果): 不熟悉不買,了解的才買,但是對已知者完全無效
(2) Persuasive Effect (暗示效果): 暗示買香奈兒包包的是有錢人, 喝可口可樂是一夥人
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The prices of other items: complements vs. substitutes
Complements(互補品): Ex. App越多免錢, SmartPhone越賣Substitutes(替代品): Ex. 三明治跟飯糰, 不吃三明治可以吃飯團 -
Income: normal vs. inferior products
指Real Income.
(1) I/P 上升(名目I上升或P下降), 則變有錢, 正常財Q上升
(2) I/P 上升(名目I上升或P下降), 則變有錢, 劣等財Q下降
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